An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry 2001

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Construction Industry Research and Policy Center

Summary Statement

An in-depth analysis of fatal construction incidents in 2001 based on OSHA inspections, including cause of incident and comparisons with previous years.

This report covers only a portion of the deaths in the construction industry in 2001


This report is based upon OSHA-inspected fatal events in construction during calendar 2001. The data analyzed were provided by Dr. Joseph Dubois, Director, Office of Statistics, Occupational Safety and Health Administration. William R. Schriver, Ph.D., and Thomas E. Cressler II, M.S., Resource, conducted the study and prepared this report; they alone are responsible for all interpretations, conclusions and any errors found in the report.

Table of Contents

Section

    I. Introduction
    II. Data
    III. Analysis
List of Tables in Text
    Table I. Construction Fatality Event Causes, 2001
    Table II. A Comparison of Ranks of Causes of Fatal Events in 1991 - 2000 with 2001
Appendices

Appendix A:
Appendix B: Appendix C:
    Table C1. Construction Fatal Events by End-Use Type, 2001
    Table C2. Construction Fatal Events by Type of Project, 2001
    Table C3. Construction Fatal Events by Four-Digit SIC, 2001
    Table C4. Construction Fatal Events by Project Value, 2001
    Table C5. Construction Fatal Events by Construction Operation, 2001
I. Introduction

This paper reports on the causes of fatal events in the construction industry which occurred in calendar year 2001. Seven earlier studies1 by the Construction Industry Research and Policy Center (CIRPC) analyzed the causes of fatal events in this industry in 1991-1992, 1993-1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999 and 2000.

II. Data

The data analyzed in this report, provided by OSHA from Form 170's, consist of narrative descriptions of the 719 fatal events inspected by OSHA resulting from accidents which occurred in construction during calendar year 2001. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 provides States with the option of administrating the Act themselves or accepting Federal administration of the Act. Twenty-nine States and the District of Columbia chose administration under the Federal System, and the remaining 21 States and two Territories chose self-administration under State Plans2.

In this report as in earlier reports, analysis includes all OSHA-inspected fatal construction accidents regardless of Federal or State administration.

Also, as in the earlier studies, non-accidental fatalities on construction sites or contractor yards (such as deaths from non-work related heart attacks, strokes, seizures, etc.) and fatalities of construction workers killed off-site in traffic accidents were excluded from the analysis; these fatalities accounted for about 3 percent of OSHA-inspected fatal construction events in 1991-2000 and 3 percent in 2001. Although the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employers to report fatalities to OSHA within eight hours of the occurrence of the event, all fatalities on construction sites are not inspected by OSHA; for example, OSHA does not inspect fatal construction events involving independent contractors with no employees. Therefore, the results reported upon here do not provide a year-to-year analysis of changes in the absolute number of fatal events or individuals killed on construction sites.

Each narrative record typically consists of a brief description of the event leading to the fatality, although this is not always the case. Where the narrative description was omitted, inconclusive or completely unclear the event cause was coded "unknown cause or other"; otherwise each narrative was analyzed and classified into one of 31 cause categories, although a great deal of collective judgment was often required to classify the cause of many of the accidents.

This report also includes the following classification of each fatal event according to coding by the OSHA compliance officer who investigated the accident: (1) type of construction (new or addition, alteration or rehabilitation, maintenance or repair, demolition, other); (2) estimate of total project value (seven dollar-value categories beginning with "under $50,000" and ending with "$20,000,000 and over"); (3) 17 end-use categories, such as "single-family housing," "multi-family building," "commercial building," "street or highway," etc.; and (4) the construction operation being performed that caused the fatal event (selected from a list of construction operations such as "backfilling and compacting," "cutting concrete pavement," "erecting structural steel," "installing equipment (HVAC and other," etc.). However, CIRPC's review of over 1200 case files of fatal construction events occurring in 1997, 1998 and 1999 revealed that coded data for an event were sometimes internally inconsistent or did not comport with corresponding narrative descriptions. Consequently, the data analyzed in this report are restricted to the direct causes of the fatal events where the authors were able, in most cases, to classify the events with relative certainty according to 31 types of causes, essentially the same types as were used in CIRPC's previous fatality studies. However, coded data are included in Appendix C for the following: (1) end-use of structure; (2) type of construction; (3) occupation of the victim(s); (4) contract value of the construction project; and (5) construction operation associated with the fatality.

In classifying the events a rule of primacy was followed for multiple-cause fatalities (representing less than 1 percent of the fatality events in this study and the earlier studies cited): the first cause in the chain of causes was recorded as the cause of the fatal event. Definitions of the causes are shown in Appendix A.

III. Analysis

A. Distribution of Fatal Events by Cause

Table 1 shows the cause classification system, the number of times each cause represented a fatal event in 2001, the relative frequency of each cause and the number of victims killed3. It can be seen that "fall from/through roof" led all other causes in number of fatal events (86 or 12.0 percent of total fatal events), followed by "fall from/through structure" (77 or 10.7 percent). The third leading cause was "crushed/run-over of non-operator by operating construction equipment" (55 or 7.6 percent); the fourth leading cause was "electric shock from equipment installation/tool use" (48 or 6.7 percent); the fifth leading cause was "struck by falling object/projectile (including tip-overs)" (40 or 5.6 percent); and the sixth leading cause was "fall from/with ladder" (38 or 5.3 percent). The number and relative frequencies of the remaining causes of the 719 fatal events analyzed may be read directly from Table 1. (Comparative frequencies for earlier years are shown in Figures B1 through B4 in Appendix B.)

Table 1. Construction Fatality Event Causes, 2001
Event Causes Description Events Victims Percent of Events
1 asphyxiation/inhalation of toxic vapor 11 13 1.5
2 caught in stationary equipment 4 5 .6
3 crushed from collapse of structure 19 19 2.6
4 crushed/run-over of non-operator by operating construction equipment 55 56 7.6
5 crushed/run-over/trapped of operator by operating construction equipment 30 30 4.2
6 crushed/run-over by construction equipment during maintenance/modification 10 10 1.4
7 crushed/run-over by highway vehicle 20 24 2.8
8 drown, non-lethal fall 3 3 .4
9 electric shock by touching exposed wire 28 28 3.9
10 electric shock by equipment contacting power source 36 38 5.0
    Event Percent
a ladder 2 .3
b scaffold 1 .1
c crane/lifting equipment/boom/dump truck 26 3.6
d contact while handling materials such as gutters, iron rods, etc 7 1.0
11 electric shock from equipment installation/tool use 48 48 6.7
12 electric shock, other 0 0 0
13 elevator (struck/crushed by elevator or counter weights) 6 6 .8
14 fall from/with ladder: includes collapse/fall of ladder 38 38 5.3
15 fall from/through roof 86 87 12.0
16 fall from highway vehicle/construction equipment 4 4 .6
17 fall from/with scaffold 23 23 3.2
18 fall from/with bucket (aerial lift/basket) 18 19 2.5
19 fall from/with structure (other than roof) 77 77 10.7
20 fall from/with platform or catwalk 13 17 1.8
21 fall through opening (other than roof) 24 24 3.3
22 fall, other 8 8 1.1
23 fire/explosion/scalding 12 12 1.7
24 hyperthermia/hypothermia 5 5 .7
25 hit, crushed, fall during lifting operation 31 32 4.3
26 struck by falling object/projectile (including tip-overs) 40 40 5.6
27 crushed/suffocation from trench collapse 32 33 4.5
28 crushed while unloading-loading equipment/material (except by crane) 14 14 1.9
29 shock/burn from lightning 4 4 .6
30 crushed other 1 1 .1
31 unknown cause or other 19 19 2.6
Total   719 737 100.0

The number of victims killed by each cause is also shown in Table 1 where it can be seen that in most events only one worker was killed per event. (In one cause category no workers were killed, "electric shock, other".) There were 20 fatality causes where no event had multiple fatalities; only 10 fatality causes included events with multiple fatalities. "Fall from/with platform or catwalk" was the fatality cause which had the most victims killed per event, i.e., 13 events and 17 victims or 1.3 victims per event.

Table 2 shows a comparison of the ranks of the causes in 2001 with the average rank of the causes of fatal events during the period 1991 - 2000. It can be seen that the overall rank pattern of the causes in 2001 is very similar to the rank pattern in 1991 - 2000. An overall statistical comparison of the correlation of the rank in 2001 with the average rank in1991-2000 was calculated using a Spearman rank correlation procedure4. The correlation obtained was + .88, p .001, indicating that the ranks of the causes in the two time periods are highly and positively correlated, i.e., did not change significantly between 1991 - 2000 and 20015. Since averaging the 1991 - 2000 ranks removed inter-year variance, a somewhat lower correlation would be expected between 2000 and 2001 ranks of causes, i.e., a measure of the short-term cycle as opposed to a longer-term trend. The Spearman rank-order correlation between 2000 and 2001 causes was calculated and found to be insignificantly higher, .90, p . .001, indicating that the 1991-1998 pattern changed very little between 2000 and 2001.

Table 2. Comparison of Ranks of Causes of Fatal Events in 1991 - 2000 with 2001
Event
1991 - 2000 Average
2001
 
Number
Percent
Rank
Number
Percent
Rank
1 asphyxiation/inhalation of toxic vapor 6.2 1.0 22 11 1.6 20
2 caught in stationary equipment 5.9 1.0 23 4 0.6 26
3 crushed from collapse of structure 26.3 4.3 8 19 2.7 15
4 4. crushed/run-over of non-operator by operating construction equipment 46.4 7.7 4 55 7.8 3
5 crushed/run-over/trapped of operator by operating construction equipment 32.6 5.4 6 30 4.3 10
6 crushed/run-over by construction equipment during maintenance/modification 12.4 2.0 19 10 1.4 21
7 crushed/run-over by highway vehicle 24.6 4.1 11 20 2.8 14
8 drown, non-lethal fall 5.9 1.0 23 3 0.4 28
9 electric shock by touching exposed wire 25.1 4.1 10 28 4.0 11
10 electric shock by equipment contacting power source 47.3 7.8 2 36 5.1 7
11 electric shock from equipment installation/tool use 26.0 4.3 9 48 6.8 4
12 electric shock, other 5.3 0.9 26 0 0.0 29
13 elevator (struck/crushed by elevator or counter weights) 2.4 0.4 29 6 0.9 24
14 fall from/with ladder: includes collapse/fall of ladder 23.4 3.9 12 38 5.4 6
15 fall from/through roof 68.0 11.2 1 86 12.3 1
16 fall from highway vehicle/construction equipment 5.4 0.9 25 4 0.6 26
17 fall from/with scaffold 20.3 3.3 14 23 3.3 13
18 fall from/with bucket (aerial lift/basket) 11.9 2.0 20 18 2.6 16
19 fall from/with structure (other than roof) 47.1 7.8 3 77 11.0 2
20 fall from/with platform or catwalk 15.1 2.5 17 13 1.9 18
21 fall through opening (other than roof) 15.4 2.5 16 24 3.4 12
22 fall, other 4.2 0.7 27 8 1.1 22
23 fire/explosion/scalding 14.3 2.4 18 12 1.7 19
24 hyperthermia/hypothermia 3.5 0.6 28 5 0.7 25
25 hit, crushed, fall during lifting operations 33.1 5.5 5 31 4.4 9
26 struck by falling object/projectile (including tip-overs) 22.5 3.7 13 40 5.7 5
27 crushed/suffocation from trench collapse 28.7 4.7 7 32 4.6 8
28 crushed while unloading-loading equipment/material (except by crane) 10.9 1.8 21 14 2.0 7
29 shock/burn from lightning 16 2.6 15 7 1.0 23
Total 606.2 100.0   702 100.0  

The correlation result is not surprising given that the general composition of construction output, and therefore the mix of construction operations required to produce the output, was probably very similar during the time periods examined. This interpretation implies that the rank of a cause is a function of the magnitude of exposure to the cause and/or the inherent danger associated with the cause.

While the number of OSHA-inspected fatal construction events caused by accidents have had an upward trend since 1991, employment in construction establishments has also increased6. The trend of these fatal events per 100,000 construction establishment employees is as follows: 1991 - 1992: 13.1; 1993 - 1994: 11.8; 1995: 11.4; 1996: 10.5; 1997: 10.6, 1998: 10.4; 1999: 11.0; 2000: 9.5; and 2001: 10.8.

APPENDIX A


Definitions of Fatality Causes

    1. asphyxiation/inhalation of toxic vapor: lack of oxygen and/or inhalation of toxic gas, (excluding asphyxiation resulting from fire/explosion).
    2. caught in stationary equipment: body or clothing caught pulling worker into equipment.
    3. collapse of structure: building or other structure falling on worker, not including falling ladder, scaffold, aerial lift/ basket, platform, with a structure, trench collapse, or wall (earthen) collapse.
    4. crushed/run-over of non-operator by operating construction equipment: non-operator run-over or crushed between equipment and ground or another object by an operator controlled piece of construction equipment.
    5. crushed/run-over/trapped of operator by operating construction equipment: includes rollover and catching of body in equipment or between equipment and ground or other object while operating the equipment.*
    6. crushed/run-over by construction equipment during maintenance/ modification: includes equipment/parts falling on worker while assembling or disassembling equipment.
    7. crushed/run-over by highway vehicle: any run-over by non-construction equipment, including trains.
    8. drown, non-lethal fall: non-lethal falls into water and flooding of container, trenches, etc.
    9. electrocution by touching exposed wire/source: body part contacting the wire/source except when installing equipment or using a tool.
    10. electrocution by equipment contacting wire

      a. ladder
      b. scaffold
      c. crane/lifting equipment/boom/dump truck:
      d. other: contact while handling materials, e g. gutters, iron rods, painting equipment, etc.

    11. electrocution from equipment installation/tool use: includes failure to de-energize equipment, inappropriate energizing, contacting energized part with tool or body, and inadequately grounded tools or exposed tool wires.
    12. electric shock, other and unknown cause
    13. elevator (struck/crushed by elevator or counter-weights):
    14. fall from/with ladder: includes collapse/fall of ladder.
    15. fall from roof; fall through roof: skylight or other opening.
    16. fall from vehicle (vehicle/construction equipment): falls from vehicle or equipment while in motion or at rest.
    17. fall from/with scaffold: includes collapse/fall of scaffold.
    18. fall from/with bucket (aerial lift/basket): includes collapse/fall of bucket.
    19. fall from/with structure (other than roof): fall through opening in the side or through the floor (not opening in the floor) and with the structure in a collapse.
    20. fall from/with platform or catwalk (attached to structure: includes collapse/fall of platform.
    21. fall through opening (other than roof): falls through stairwells, equipment openings, or other openings in a floor.
    22. fall, other
    23. fire/explosion/scalding, excluding electrical burns/explosions
    24. heat/hypothermia
    25. lifting operations: failure of equipment, inappropriate lifting, and all loading and unloading by crane operations except electrocution. (Includes objects falling and striking victim during lifting operation).
    26. struck by falling object/projectile (including tip-overs): does not include collapse of structure, trench, earthen wall, or lifting operations.
    27. trench collapse: includes earthen wall
    28. unloading-loading equipment/material (except by crane): includes slipping and tipping over of construction equipment/material while loading and unloading.
    29. lightning
    30. crushed
    31. unknown cause or other

APPENDIX B

Figure B1. Comparison of Construction Fatality Causes (Pooled Years 1995-2000 with 2001)
Figure B2. Frequency of Causes of Construction Fatality Events (2001)
Figure B3. Frequency of Causes of Construction Fatality Events (1995-2000)
Figure B4. Comparison of Construction Fatality Causes - Combined Categories (Pooled Years 1995-2000 with 2001)

APPENDIX C

Table C1. Construction Fatal Events by End-Use Type, 2001

Event Causes Description Number of Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
1 Bridge 24 3.3 3.3
2 Commercial Building 171 23.4 26.7
3 Contractor's Yard/Facility 7 1.0 27.7
4 Excavation, Landfill 12 1.6 29.3
5 Highway, Road, Street 74 10.1 39.5
6 Manufacturing Plant 34 4.7 44.1
7 Multi-Family Dwelling 48 6.6 50.7
8 Other Building 84 11.5 62.2
9 Other Heavy Construction 20 2.7 64.9
10 Pipeline 20 2.7 67.7
11 Powerline, Transmission Line 34 4.7 72.3
12 Powerplant 14 1.9 74.2
13 Refinery 6 0.8 75.1
14 Sewer/Water Treatment Plant 17 2.3 77.4
15 Shoreline Development, Dam, Reservoir 4 0.5 77.9
16 Single Family or Duplex Dwelling 133 18.2 96.2
17 Tower, Tank, Storage Elevator 28 3.8 100.00
    730 100.0  
The coding for these data could not be verified.

Table C2. Construction Fatal Events by Type of Project, 2001

Event Causes Description Number of Frequencies Percent Cumulative Frequency
1 New, Addition and Alteration Construction 521 71.37 71.37
2 Maintenance, Repair and Demolition 151 20.68 92.05
3 Other 58 7.95 100.00
    730 100  
The coding for these data could not be verified.

Table C3. Construction Fatal Events by Four-Digit SIC, 2001
Event Causes Description SIC Number of Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
1 General Contractors - Single Family Houses 1521 24 3.2 3.2
2 General Contractors - Residential Buildings Other than Single Family 1522 13 1.8 5.0
3 Operative Builders - Single Family Housing, Multi-family Housing, Manufacturing, Light Industrial, Commercial, and Institutional Buildings 1531 4 0.5 5.5
4 General Contractors - Industrial Building and Warehouses 1541 18 2.4 8.0
5 General Contractors - Non-residential Buildings, other than Industrial and Warehouse 1542 43 5.8 13.8
6 Highway and Street Construction, Except Elevated Highways 1611 59 8.0 21.8
7 Bridge, Tunnel, and Elevated Highway Construction 1622 21 2.8 24.6
8 Water, Sewer, Pipeline, and Communications and Power Line Construction 1623 70 9.11 31.55
9 Heavy Construction, Not Elsewhere Classified 1629 25 3.4 37.4
10 Plumbing, Heating and Air-Conditioning 1711 27 3.6 41.1
11 Painting and Paper Hanging 1721 21 2.8 43.9
12 Electrical Work 1731 62 8.4 52.3
13 Masonry, Stone Setting, and Other Stone Work 1741 21 2.8 55.1
14 Plastering, Drywall, Acoustical, and Insulation Work 1742 10 1.4 56.5
15 Terrazzo, Tile, Marble, and Mosaic Work 1743 4 0.5 57.0
16 Carpentry Work 1751 40 5.4 62.4
18 Roofing, Siding, and Sheet Metal Work 1761 78 10.5 73.0
19 Concrete Work 1771 22 3.0 75.9
20 Water Well Drilling 1781 5 0.7 76.6
21 Structural Steel Erection 1791 52 7.0 83.6
22 Glass and Glazing Work 1793 3 0.4 84.1
23 Excavation Work 1794 22 3.0 87.0
24 Wrecking and Demolition Work 1795 21 2.8 89.9
25 Installation or Erection of Building Equipment, Not Elsewhere Classified 1796 13 1.8 91.6
26 Special Trade Contractors, Not Elsewhere Classified 1799 58 7.8 99.5
27 Trucking, Except Local 4213 1 0.1 99.6
28 Heavy Construction Equipment Rental and Leasing 7353 2 0.3 99.9
29 Legal Services 8111 1 0.1 100.00
      740 100.0  
The coding for these data could not be verified.

Table C4. construction Fatal Events by Project Value, 2001
Event Casues Description Number of Frequency Percent Cumulative Percent
1 Under 50,000 242 33.2 33.2
2 50,000-250,000 139 19.0 52.2
3 250,000-500,000 60 8.2 60.4
4 500,000-1,000,000 75 10.3 70.7
5 1,000,000-5,000,000 98 13.4 84.1
6 5,000,000-20,000,000 76 10.4 94.5
7 20,000,000 and over 40 5.5 100.0
    730 100.0  
The coding for these data could not be verified.

Table C5. Construction Fatal Events by Construction Operation, 2001
Code Description Frequency Percent of Events
01 Backfilling and compacting 3 0.4
02 Bituminous concrete placement 2 0.3
03 Construction of playing fields, tennis courts 1 0.1
04 Cutting concrete pavement 1 0.1
05 Demolition 23 3.1
06 Dredging 1 0.1
07 Elevator, escalator installation 4 0.5
09 Erecting structural steel 11 1.5
10 Erection of coffer dams, caissons 1 0.1
11 Excavation 10 1.4
12 Exterior masonry 10 1.4
13 Exterior cladding 2 0.3
14 Exterior carpentry 16 2.2
15 Exterior painting 5 0.7
16 Fencing, installing lights, signs, etc. 11 1.5
18 Forming 6 0.8
19 Forming for piers or pylons 1 0.1
20 Installing interior walls, ceilings, doors 11 1.5
21 Installing metal siding 7 0.9
22 Installing windows and doors, glazing 3 0.4
23 Installing culverts and incidental drainage 2 0.3
24 Installing equipment (HVAC and other) 21 2.8
25 Installing plumbing, lighting fixtures 7 0.9
26 Installing underground plumbing conduit 10 1.4
28 Interior masonry 8 1.1
29 Interior plumbing, ducting, electrical work 8 1.1
30 Interior carpentry 10 1.4
31 Interior painting and decorating 1 0.1
32 Landscaping 3 0.4
33 Loading dock forming and pouring 1 0.1
34 Paving 16 2.2
35 Pile driving 3 0.4
36 Placing bridge deck 1 0.1
37 Placing bridge girders and beams 5 0.7
38 Plastering 3 0.4
39 Pouring or installing floor decks 2 0.3
40 Pouring concrete floor at grade 1 0.1
41 Pouring concrete for piers, and pylons 5 0.7
42 Pouring concrete foundations and walls 4 0.5
43 Roofing 34 4.6
45 Site clearing and grubbing 4 0.5
46 Site grading and rock removal 5 0.7
47 Stripping and curing concrete 2 0.3
48 Surveying 1 0.1
50 Temporary work (buildings, facilities) 17 2.3
51 Traffic protection 5 0.7
52 Trenching, installing pipe 18 2.4
53 Waterproofing 3 0.4
55 Steel Erection Of Solid Web-Bolting-Up/Detail Work 1 0.1
56 Steel Erection Of Solid Web-Welding/Burning/Grinding 2 0.3
57 Steel Erection Of Solid Web-Plumbing-Up 1 0.1
58 Steel Erection Of Solid Web-Moving Point To Point 2 0.3
61 Steel Erection Of Open Web Steel Joists-Bolting- Up/Detail Work 2 0.3
62 Steel Erection Of Open Web Steel Joists- Welding/Burning/Grinding 1 0.1
65 Steel Erection Of Open Web Steel Joists-Landing Materials 1 0.1
66 Installation Of Decking-Initial Laying Deck (Incl Layout & Safety) 7 0.9
67 Installation Of Decking-Final Attachment Deck (Welding/Shear Studs/Etc) 2 0.3
68 Installation Of Decking-Flashing Of Decking 4 0.5
69 Installation Of Decking-Hoisting Bundles 3 0.4
70 Other Activities-Installing Ornamental And Architectural Steel 5 0.7
71 Other Activities-Post Decking Detail Work 10 1.4
00 Unknown 370 50.0
    740 100.0%
The coding for these data could not be verified.


1 An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 1991-1992 (1993), An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 1993-1994 (1995), An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 1995 (1996), An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 1996 (1997), An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 1997 (1999), An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 1998 (2000), An Analysis of Fatal Events in Construction, 1999 (2001), and An Analysis of Fatal Events in the Construction Industry, 2000 (2002), Construction Industry Research and Policy Center , University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

2 States in the Federal System are: AL, AR, CO, CT, DE, DC, FL, GA, ID, IL, KS, LA, ME, MA, MS, MO, MT, NE, NH, NJ, NY, ND, OH, OK, PA, RI, SD, TX, WV and WI. States and Territories under State Plans are: AK, AZ, CA, HI, IN, IA, KY, MD, MI, MN, NV, NM, NC, OR, PR, SC, TN, UT, VT, VI, VA, WA and WY.

3 Each event included at least one person killed and in several events additional workers were killed or injured.

4 Sidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1956), p. 219.

5 Seventeen of the 719 fatal events had either no narrative or a narrative too incomplete to classify the cause of fatality. These records were coded as "unknown" cause; this was not done in prior years. They were omitted from the calculation of the Spearman Rank correlation in order to avoid data distortion.

6 Bureau of Labor Statistics, National Employment, Hours, and Earnings.

*Includes fatalities resulting from asphyxiation/fire/explosion/drowning of trapped operators.